992.6.16 The Fundamentals of School Security 學校安全的基礎

The Fundamentals of School Security 學校安全的基礎

HOW CAN SCHOOLS ASSESS THEIR SECURITY NEEDS?
學校應該如何評估他們對防護措施的需要？

Periodic, routine security assessment can provide an objective review "without the denial often present before a serious incident or the overreaction that typically follows a crisis," says Kenneth S. Trump (1999).

“一個對於防護措施具有週期性和習慣性的評估可以提供一個「屏除在嚴重事故發生前常會有的否定或是在事故發生後典型的過度反應」的客觀的檢討。” Kenneth S.Trump，1999年說。

Checklist surveys are helpful assessment tools. Ronald D. Stephens (1995) provides model checklists covering areas ranging from physical security and procedures to emergency preparedness. George E. Richards (1997) suggests involving parents, students, law-enforcement and community representatives, and school staff in creating or adapting checklist surveys to the specific needs of a district and each of its buildings. Stephens recommends annually reviewing all aspects of a school-safety plan.

清單式的勘測是一個有助於評估的工具。Ronald D. Stephens (1995) 提供了清單的模型，當中內容包含了對於硬體設備的安全及緊急事故應對的流程。George E. Richards (1997) 建議要加入家長、學生、法律機關、民意代表以及學校員工的意見來設計符合該地區或是建築物的清單。而Stephens是建議每年檢視校園安全計畫的每一個項目。

A security assessment by an independent consultant has several advantages. An independent specialist brings objectivity and credibility as well as expertise, and can give professional validation to existing security measures as well as recommend improvements. Seeking an outside opinion demonstrates a district's openness and commitment to safety and may reduce liability (Trump). It is important to check the credentials and references of prospective consultants and make sure they are not associated with particular security product vendors (Richards, Trump).

透過獨立的顧問進行防護措施的評估有幾個好處。一個獨立專家可以帶來客觀的並且有信用的蒲估和專業的知識，也可以確認已經存在的防護措施及設備是否符合需求甚至給予改善的建議。尋找外來的一件顯是說這麼區裕的公開性和是如此忠於安全、也會減少一些負面的影響(Trump)。要確認顧問的證書和信評，並且要確定他們沒有與特定防護措的廠商有關係(Richards, Trump)。

To target security efforts where they are most needed, an analysis of school-crime data can identify patterns in crime types, locations, and perpetrators. Surveys of parents, staff, and students can yield information on unreported crimes and other problematic behaviors (Stephens).

要特別注重最有需要的防護措施，對於校園犯罪的統計資料進行分析可以指出犯罪的型態，地點，和犯罪者的類型。針對家長、學生和校院進行調查可以提供關於一些未報案件或是問題行進的資訊。

HOW CAN FACILITIES BE MADE MORE SECURE?
如何讓設備更安全？

Recent tragedies involving guns and bombs have prompted many school districts to consider adding high-tech hardware to their traditional lock-and-alarm systems.

最近牽涉到槍支與炸藥的慘案使得學校區域在考慮要將高科技的設備加如他們傳統的上鎖/警報系統。

Metal detectors are an expensive and controversial option. Their potential usefulness for a given school depends on many factors, including the severity of weapons problems, the availability of funds for staff and training, the physical design of buildings, and possible negative effects on school atmosphere.

金屬探測器是一個昂貴而且附有爭議性的選擇。它對於目前學校所提供的潛在好處包含了嚴重的武器問題、募集聘請員工或是訓練員工的經費、建築物實際的設計和可能會帶給學校的負面氛圍。

Hand-held detectors are less expensive and intrusive than walk-through models, and their portability permits random checks. They are particularly effective in keeping weapons out of events that take place in a confined space, notes National Alliance for Safe Schools Director Peter Blauvelt. Other high-tech security measures include photo ID systems, which may be tied into school computer databases, and closed-circuit television cameras (HADG 1999).

手持的偵測器比通過式的模型便宜也比較容易做詳細的檢查。它的可攜性提供作隨機檢查的選擇。尤其是想要防止武器出現在狹隘空間中時特別有效，National Alliance for Safe Schools (全國安全學校同盟) 執行長 Peter Blauvelt說到。其他高科技產品，像是照相認證系統，是可以與學校的電腦系統作連結的，或是封閉式的監視系統。

Conflict Resolution Education: Four Approaches 衝突解決教育：四種方法

Conflict Resolution Education: Four Approaches 衝突解決教育：四種方法

Evaluations of the impact of the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program (RCCP) in four multiracial, multiethnic school districts in New York City showed that 84 percent of teachers who responded to a survey reported positive changes in classroom climate, 71 percent reported moderate or significant decreases in physical violence in the classroom, and 66 percent observed less name-calling and few verbal insults. More than 98 percent of respondents said that mediation gave children a significant tool for handling conflicts.

有關創造地解決衝突的價值

Program (RCCP)在紐約四所多人種的和多民族的學校區的結果顯示出大約百分之八十四的老師們在一份問卷中表示在教室的氣氛中有正面積極的改變，百分之七十一顯示出在教室中生理上的暴力有節制或是明顯的減少，還有百分之六十六觀察出越來越少的辱罵和較少的口頭羞辱。更有超過百分之九十八的回答的人說調解是小孩們在處理衝突時一項重要的工具。

CONFLICT RESOLUTION EDUCATION 衝突解決教育

According to the "Conflict Resolution Education" report, the purposes of conflict resolution are to provide an environment in which "each learner can feel physically and psychologically free from threats and danger and can find opportunities to work and learn with others for the mutual achievement of all. The diversity of the school's population is respected and celebrated."

根據”解決衝突教育”的報告中，解決衝突的目的是提供一個環境，這個環境對每一個學習者來說，不管是在生理上或心理上從困難和危險當中都可以感到很自由的環境，而且可以為了大家成熟的成果，學習者是可以找到機會來和別人一起同工，一起學習的。學校多元化的人口比例是值得尊敬和慶祝的。

The report offers negotiation, mediation, and consensus of decision making as the three essential processes of conflict resolution. It goes on to define four basic approaches to conflict resolution education:

這個報告把溝通，協調，和很多的決策決定視為在解決衝突中三個很重要的過程。接下來會定義在解決衝突教育中四個基本的方法。

·         Process Curriculum. This approach is characterized by teaching conflict resolution as a separate course, a distinct curriculum, or a daily lesson plan.

·         教育過程---這個方法的特徵是教育課程在教導解決衝突中是一個獨立的課程，一個不同的教育，或是一份一整天的教學計畫。

·         Mediation Program. Selected individuals (adults and/or students) are trained in the principles of conflict resolution and mediation to provide neutral third-party input to assist others in reaching resolution to a conflict

·         調解計畫---在解決衝突的原則當中，選擇獨立的個體(成人和/或學生)是必要的訓練，而且調解可以提供一個第三集會的投入在一個衝突中來增加解決，還有來幫助其他人。

·         Peaceable Classroom. This approach integrates conflict resolution education into the curriculum and classroom management strategy.

·         和平的教室---這個方法是把解決衝突教育逐漸合一的加入課程和教室管理的對策中。

·         Peaceable Schools. Built on the peaceable classroom approach, this strategy uses conflict resolution as a system for managing the school as well as the classroom. Every member of the school community, including parents, learns conflict resolution principles and processes.

·         和平的學校—這個方法是建立在和平教室方法的上面，這個策略把解決衝突利用成為一個和教室一樣的一個系統來管理學校。學校共同體的每一個成員，包含父母親，都要學習解決衝突的原則和過程。

The approaches often overlap in actual schools or other institutions. Here's a look at how each approach works in a different program.

這些方法在每一個學校或其他的機關當中通常都會有同時發生的情形。這裡可以觀看一下關於每一種方法如何在不同的方案中運作的狀況。

992.6.2 Trends and Issues: Role of the School Leader

Trends and Issues: Role of the School Leader

Instructional Leadership

1. Teacher Evaluation, Leadership and Learning Organizations.
老師革命，領導才能和學習組織

2. Building a Professional Learning Community.

  建立一個專業的學習社區

3. Making Leadership for Learning the Top Priority.

  讓領導力成為學習的第一要務

4.Teachers' Perceptions of Principals' Instructional Leadership and Implications.

  老師們的觀點: 校長教育的領導才能和應用

5. Instructional Leadership: Learning on the Job.

  教育的領導力:從工作中學習

6. Developing Principals as Instructional Leaders.
  身為教育領導者的發展原則

7. The Future of Middle Level Reform: A Conversation with the Authors of "Turning Points 2000."
  未來中等教育的改革: 和“2000年改變想法”作者的對話

8. Finding Time To Lead.

  找時間來領導

9. Leslie's Lament: How Can I Make Teacher Supervision Meaningful?
Leslie's Lament: 我如何讓老師的管理有意義?

10. Capacity Building of Beginning Teachers from Alternative Certification Programs:     Implications for Instructional Leadership.

  從非傳統的證明計劃中建立新手老師的能力: 教育的領導應用

11. Effective Instructional Leadership: Teachers' Perspectives on How Principals Promote Teaching and Learning in Schools.  有效率的教育領導: 老師觀點有關於校長如何促進學校的教學和學習

12. Curriculum Leadership and Management in Secondary Schools: A Hong Kong Case Study.  在中等學校的課程領導和管理: 一個香港的個案研究
 

992.5.26 Changing culture: improving curriculum leadership

Changing culture: improving curriculum leadership
改變中的文化：更好的課程領導

學校文化對課程校長來說很重要，但要如何定義一間學校的盛行文化、瞭解課程領導與其之關係、如何使其更好? Jon Prosser指出，對英國教育督學來說，最重要的是”經濟效益”與”教學成效”，但毫無疑問地，學校文化的議題會出現在高階管理團隊的對話中。

雖然學校文化難以描述界定，但它對於校長與中階管理者來說卻非常重要。學校文化出現於1932年，但只在80年代被廣泛討論。學校文化往往與當時的政治改革有關，學校文化處處存在，且影響學校的發展、效率、基礎都非常重要。但什麼是學校文化？它對學校領導又有什麼影響?

何謂學校文化?

就好像是一種隱喻，如同氣候、風氣、語調、氛圍或特質，常意指特殊習俗或制度現象。學校文化類似社會文化, 為一種隱喻，但因較容易被瞭解因此較容易被社會大眾廣泛接受。

除了學校文化學校特性也有其他說法可表示，包括：人的個人特徵之於學校的學校文化、當無人監視時學校的運作、學校間的社會凝聚力，但對課程領導者來說使用學校文化仍最合適。

學校文化的重心在於學校人員所認知之價值、規範、信念、風俗，是一種提供意義、方向或動員的獨特主題。學校文化的強弱於獨特性主要由校內同質且穩定的族群決定，但實際上鮮少只有單一族群，大部分由壓力團體或較小文化，如學生文化或老師文化，總合成學校文化。

辨別學校文化

有許多問卷可幫助學校辨別該校的學校文化，但這些問卷都無法反映出學校文化錯綜複雜的概念。要定義學校文化，一個務實的方式就是依照3個相關的分類列出校內人事每日行為表。

產生一個廣泛、相似的學校文化並不難，因為他們並不屬於老師管轄範圍，只需要有意識的描繪出每日工作與生活即可。但獨特的文化對單一學校來說非常重要，是學校可以創造與改變的文化，然而獨特的文化是非常難定義的。

你的學校的獨特文化是什麼?

為了使學生達到目標，老師需要教導與管理學生，因此老師重視教學與學習。而學校需要維持社交關係，所以學校重視滿意度、支持、社交程度。為了解決管理學生的問題，學校必須施壓給老師，使其完成目標。所以社會控制應用在這些目標以管理學生-也就是所謂的獨特學校文化之社會控制功能。

同時，學校也必須保持老師之間的和睦，因為老師之間容易為完成目標而有衝突-即獨特文化中的社會和睦功能。如果無法良好處理上述兩個功能，則學校會瓦解且其效率會降低。每間學校都必須找出這兩個功能(社會管理與和睦)的平衡點。

以此為基礎，Hargraves(1999)建立了4個理想學校文化類型：

Hothouse：管理與和睦皆優(下述遊戲分類綠色)

Formal：管理優於和睦(粉色)

Welfarist：和睦優於管理(黃色)

Survivalist：管理與和睦皆劣(藍色)

使用這個學校文化分類，即可辨別出一個學校的獨特的學校文化。目標在於建立一個老師對於自己學校的學校文化概念資料。建立方式為使用一個8X8格的紙上遊戲，版子上四個角分別繪4種顏色，每位老師各拿到4張卡片(一組)，分別為四個學校文化分類之色卡。每個人再發一張屬於自己的格子紙，在不了解顏色的特色嚇，在格子上面標住自己學校的學校文化。

992.5.12 Data-Driven School Improvement. 以資料為導向的學校改善

Data-Driven School Improvement. 以資料為導向的學校改善

HOW CAN DATA BE USED EFFECTIVELY?

數據如何有效地被使用?

In any organization, those who possess information typically exercise a degree of power or control over those who don't. How information is to be used will affect how data-collection initiatives are perceived and then implemented.

在任何一個機構，那些擁有資訊的人會典型地練習一種權力的程度或是控制那些沒有擁有資訊的人。資訊如何被應用將會影響數據的主動收集如何的被理解然後被應用出來。

Data can be used to judge people's performance and take punitive action against underachievers, or it can be used to diagnose problems and determine the efficacy of solutions.

數據可以被用來斷定人們的表現和採取嚴苛的動作去對抗那些表現未達理想的人，或是數據也可以被用來去診斷問題和決定解決方法的成效。

Principals' "willingness to provide opportunities for information acquisition...may be tempered by their competitive notions of power which only impede the empowerment of teachers" (Peggy Kirby and Ira Bogotch 1989).

Peggy Kirby and Ira Bogotch 1989的書中提到，校長”對於取得資訊願意提貢機會的意願….可能會被他們的強大有競爭力的想法所斷練，那個想法只會被老師的活力化所阻止。

The concept of continuous improvement should be stressed. "Each data-collection cycle and its results should not be thought of as an activity with a grade...it should be thought of as information on the progress being made toward attaining the collective goal and to assist all members of the organization as they make decisions for current and future action," states Calhoun.

不斷進步的這個概念是應該被強調的。Calhoun說到,“每一個數據收集的循環還有數據本身的結果不應該被認為是一項有成績的活動，數據應該是被看做在前進的過程中被營造出的資訊，這些資訊是可以達到那個共同的目標。還有數據也可以協助機構的每一個成員，尤其是當他們對於最近的和未來的活動下決定的時候。”

Choosing a specific area of focus is also crucial. Through consultation with other staff members, whether formally or informally, the researcher needs to select a well-defined set of objectives. The data-collection cycle and subsequent action steps should be designed to address these needs. When goals of the improvement effort are clearly defined, teachers, staff, and the community will be more likely to understand and support the initiative.

 決定重點當中特定的一個領域也是很重要的。透過和其他員工成員討論出正式或非正式的結論，研究者必須選擇一套好定義的目標。數據收集的循環和後來的動作階段應該是被設計來滿足這些需要。當這些改善成果的目標被很清楚地定義時，老師，員工還有這個社區將會更容易了解和支持提出的主動的提議行動。

l          在一個機構中，資訊如何被應用將會影響數據的主動收集，還有如何被應用出來，數據的優點很多，數據可以被用來斷定人們的表現和採取嚴苛的動作去對抗那些表現未達理想的人，或是數據也可以被用來去診斷問題和決定解決方法的成效。……..

992.5.5 The School Culture：學校文化

Cultural Norms文化規範

Just as the attitudes and beliefs of persons both inside and outside the school building may facilitate or impede change, the norms, or informal rules that govern behavior exert influence on change efforts. These norms are developed over time and are influenced by the attitudes and beliefs of those inside and outside the school. In turn, the norms define expectations regarding how things are to be done. This exerts an influence on beliefs and attitudes and the relationships of persons.

正如人的態度和信念一樣，學校建築物內部與外部可能促進或阻礙變革，規範就是受到正式或非正式的規則所支配的行為，可以對變革的成果發生影響。這些規範隨著時間的推移而發展，並受到學校內部、外部的態度和信念所影響。反過來，規範定義了事情要如何完成的期望。這對人的信念和態度以及關係發揮了影響。

Internalization of the culture. 內化的文化

Because of the impact of cultural norms on school improvement, the extent to which individual staff members internalize that culture affects improvement efforts as well. Schein (1985) explains that "every organization is concerned about the degree to which people at all levels 'fit' into it" (p. 42). Those new to the organization must learn the culture or suffer consequences, such as the feeling of alienation. If, on the other hand, the employee is "oversocialized", "the result is total conformity, leading to the inability on the part of the organization to be innovative" (Schein, 1985, p. 42).

因為文化規範對學校改善的衝擊，文化影響了個別工作人員的內化以及改善成果的範圍。Schein (1985)解釋說：「每一個組織應該關心各層級人員適合的內化程度」(p.42)。組織的新成員必須學習組織文化或承擔其後果，例如疏離的感覺。另一方面，如果員工『過度社會化』，將導致部分的組織工作無法創新」(Schein, 1985, p. 42)。

Schein (1985) delineates the elements that affect the degree to which culture is internalized.

Schein (1985)描繪了影響文化內化程度的元素：

n   Common language and conceptual categories.

If members cannot communicate with and understand each other, a group is impossible by definition.

n   共同的語言和概念的範疇

如果成員無法溝通與相互理解，團體就不可能被界定。

n   Group boundaries and criteria for inclusion and exclusion.

One of the most important areas of culture is the shared consensus on who is in and who is out and by what criteria one determines membership.

n   團體的界限以及納入與排除的規準

文化中最重要的領域是決定成員進或出的規準，是一個共享的共識。

n   Power and status.

Every organization must work out its pecking order, its criteria and rules for how one gets, maintains, and loses power; consensus in this area is crucial to help members manage feelings of aggression.

n   權力與地位

每個組織都必須制定出其權力階層，以及人們得到、維持和失去權力的規準和規則，在這方面達成共識是很重要的，這樣可以協助成員處理權力被侵犯的感覺。

n   Intimacy, friendship, and love.

Every organization must work out its rules of the game for peer relationships, for relationships between the sexes, and for the manner in which openness and intimacy are to be handled in the context of managing the organization's tasks.

n   親密關係、友誼和愛情

每個組織都必須制定出同儕關係、兩性關係的遊戲規則，以及組織的任務範圍內，開放和親密的禮貌。

n   Rewards and punishments.

Every group must know what its heroic and sinful behaviors are; what gets rewarded with property, status, and power; and what gets punished in the form of withdrawal of the rewards and, ultimately, excommunication.

n   獎勵與懲罰

每個團體必須知道，什麼是英勇的或是不道德的行為？什麼的情況會得到財物、地位和權力的獎勵？以及什麼情況會得到撤銷獎勵的懲罰，甚至最終被開除。

n   Ideology and "religion."

Every organization [must reach consensus on how to manage the unmanageable and explain the unexplainable. Stories and myths about what was done in the past provide explanations and norms for managing situations that defy scientific decision making.] (p. 66)

n   意識形態與「宗教」

每個組織必須在如何管理失控和解釋無法解釋的事情上達成共識。過去做了什麼的故事和神話，在管理情境中所提供的解釋和規範，是無法與科學的決定做比較的(p.66)。

Pollack, Chrispeels, and Watson (1987), in their study of ten schools engaged in school improvement efforts, emphasize that internalization of change is important because it "leads to transformations and changes in users' practices and the consequent institutionalizing of change at a school site" (p. 15). Most teachers rely on the memories of their own teachers' actions, teacher-training programs, and the process of socialization to cope with problems (Davis, 1988). They become, according to Davis, reasonably comfortable with the standard operating procedures of the school's culture. When change occurs, such as the introduction of a new program, discomfort occurs. A "time honored practice in many schools" is to simply forget to implement new programs in order to insulate against the "anxiety-producing situation" that change presents and that those involved wish to avoid if at all possible (Davis, 1988, p. 6).

Pollack, Chrispeels, and Watson (1987)在他們從事十所學校的改善成果的研究中，強調變革的內化是很重要。因為它導致使用者實踐時的轉型和變革，以及由此在學校環境中所產生的制度化變革(p.15)。大部分教師依靠回憶自己的老師的行為、師資培育方案以及社會化的進程來應付問題(Davis, 1988)。根據Davis的觀點，他們將學校文化合理化成安逸的標準作業程序。當變革發生時，例如引進一個新的方案時，不適應就發生。許多學校長久以來的慣例，使得他們很輕易的就忘記，執行新方案就是希望隔絕和避免那些參與變革所可能產生的焦慮(Davis, 1988, p. 6)。

Student culture.學生的文化

Like other cultures, the school culture consists of a dominant culture and subcultures of various groups. The student culture is one of these subcultures.

如同其他文化一樣，學校文化是由一個主流文化和許多次文化組成。學生文化是其中一個次文化。

Attention must be paid to the peer culture of students, especially in secondary schools. The extent to which the student culture values academic success or willingly complies with school rules, will affect their achievement. Since student peer culture influences student performance, school staff members must [know] whether the dominant peer culture adds to or detracts from the school's mission (Patterson, Purkey, & Parker, 1986, p. 101).

學生的同儕文化必須加以注意，尤其是在中等學校。在學術上獲得成功或是自願遵守學校的規章，反應在學生文化的價值觀中，它將影響他們的學業成就。因為學生同儕文化會影響學生的表現。學校工作人員必須知道，其主流的學生同儕文化，會增加或降低學校的使命(Patterson, Purkey, & Parker, 1986, p. 101)。

Staff members need to examine the dominant student culture and look for ways to help students internalize elements of the school culture that will make students supportive of the school's mission (Patterson, Purkey, & Parker, 1986). Wehlage (1983), in his study of successful programs for at-risk students, notes the existence of a peer culture that supports the rules and goals of the program. The programs he studied were perceived by students as having a family atmosphere that provided acceptance and constructive criticism. Students believed that the rules and goals were in their interest.

學校工作人員需要檢視主流的學生文化，以及尋求方法幫助學生內化學校文化的要素，使學生支持學校的使命(Patterson, Purkey, & Parker, 1986)。在Wehlage (1983) 為高風險學生成功方案的研究中，注意到同儕文化的存在，支持著該方案的規則和目標。他研究的這個方案，因為提供認同和建設性的批評，被學生認為有家庭的氛圍。學生相信規則和目標符合他們的利益。

Turnover.成員流動率

One barrier to internalization of the school culture is turnover among staff. The instability of teachers in urban schools presents a problem for program continuity (Conklin & Olson, 1988; Pink, 1990). Similarly, the departure of a respected teacher who strongly advocates a project may dampen enthusiasm for it among the remaining teachers (Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone, 1984). Whether due to the loss of teachers who serve as leaders of the project, the loss of those who are trained in project implementation, or the loss of teachers who serve as a support mechanism, turnover gets in the way of lasting improvement.

一個學校文化內化的阻礙是學校成員的流動率，市區學校教師的流動率高，使得執行方案的持續性出現問題(Conklin & Olson, 1988; Pink, 1990)。同樣的，一個受人尊敬且強烈支持方案的教師離職，可能會減損其餘留任教師的熱忱(Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone, 1984)。不論是因為擔任方案領導人的教師離職，或者接受訓練以執行方案的損失，還是作為支持機制的教師離職，這些流動率造成的損失都應該想辦法持續改善。

Corbett, Dawson, and Firestone (1984), in their study of fourteen schools implementing change, note that "the consequences of turnover on change projects can be considerable, especially if a principal who supports a project leaves and is replaced by another whose priorities are different" (p. 7). This may be more true for "high-powered, charismatic principals who 'radically transform' the school in four or five years," according to Fullan (1992), because "so much depends on his or her personal strength and presence" (p. 19). Fullan admits that no follow-up studies have been done on schools with this type of principal, but suggests that most of these schools decline after the leader leaves. "Too much store is placed in the leader as solution compared to the leader as enabler of solutions" (p. 19).

Corbett, Dawson, and Firestone (1984)，在他們十四所學校實施變革的研究中，注意到「流動率影響變革的結果相當大，特別是支持變革的校長離職後，其後任校長施政的優先順序與前任不同時」(p.7)。可能更真實的是──「幹勁十足、有魅力的校長在四、五年間就可以從根本上將學校轉型」，依據Fullan (1992)的觀點，因為有很多地方要取決於校長（他或她）個人的實力和風采(p.19)。Fullan也承認，後續沒有對這類型校長的研究，但大多數這些學校的領導者離開後，學校的表現退步了。「太多的商店把領導者解決，而不是將領導者視為有能力解決問題的人」(p.19)。

Cultural Norms that Facilitate School Improvement 促進學校改善的文化規範

Researchers have found particular cultural norms that can facilitate school improvement. Norms such as introspection, collegiality, and a shared sense of purpose or vision combine to create a culture that supports innovation (Staessens, 1991). In her study of nine primary schools in Belgium, Staessens found that a school culture with these norms was instrumental in the school's ability to sustain school improvement. Saphier and King (1985) list from their experience twelve norms of school culture that support significant, continuous, and widespread improvements in instruction. These include norms that encourage: high expectations; experimentation; use of the knowledge bases; involvement in decision making; protection of what's important; collegiality; trust and confidence; tangible support; appreciation and recognition; caring, celebration, and humor; traditions; and honest, open communication. The degree to which these norms are strong makes a difference in the ability of school improvement activities to have a lasting, or even any, effect. Other writers confirm the need for cultural norms that support change efforts.

研究人員發現，特定的文化規範可以促進學校改善。例如反省、合議以及共同的目的或願景結合起來，創造一種支持創新的文化(Staessens,199)。Staessen研究九所比利時(Belgium)小學後發現，學校文化與這些規範，有助於學校持續改善的能力。Saphier and King (1985)從他們的經驗列出了十二項，支持教學上有意義的、持續的和普遍的，改善學校文化的規範。這些規範包含了：鼓勵、高度期望、實驗精神、使用知識為基礎、參與決策、對重要事物的保護、合議、信任與信心、實質的支持、讚賞與認同、關懷、慶典、幽默、傳統、誠實以及公開的溝通。在這些規範對學校改善活動的能力到何種程度上是有差別的，可以產生持久的，甚至是其他的任何影響。其他研究者也確認，文化規範對於支持變革成果的需求。

Norms of continuous critical inquiry.持續性批判探究的規範

Saphier and King (1985) note that good schools have a wide-spread belief that any school has areas of strength and weakness. This belief creates an openness to dealing with imperfections, suggesting that the school has high expectations for itself and its ability to improve. Barth (1991) believes, based on his experience, that the most important change to bring to schools is a cultural norm of continuous adaptability, experimentation, and invention. If everyone in the culture is reluctant to express ideas they perceive are counter to group norms, a barrier to change is created (Sarason, 1982).

Saphier and King (1985)指出，良好的學校都知道，任何學校都有其優點和弱點的領域，這樣的信念使學校有一個開放的心態處理學校的缺失，也就是學校對自己和改善的能力具有高度的期望。Barth (1991)認為，根據他的經驗，為學校帶來最重要的改變是持續適應性、實驗性和創造性的文化規範。學校文化如果是讓每個人不願去表達自己的意見，變革的阻礙就誕生了(Sarason, 1982)。

Druian and Butler (1987) reviewed the literature on effective schools and practices that work for at-risk students. They found that successful programs do not suppress criticism but instead provide a positive and constructive atmosphere in which criticism can occur. A barrier to a norm of continuous improvement is the silencing of criticism by schools, which contributes to resistance to change and the dropout problem, according to Fine (1991). A "hidden curriculum" identified by Howe (1987) in his experiences as a researcher was found to underlie the structure of the school and to emphasize conformity.

Druian and Butler (1987)探討有效能的學校對高風險學生的作為的文獻，他們發現，成功的方案不會壓抑批評的聲音，而是提供一個積極的和建設性的氣氛，讓批評可以發聲。沉默的批評聲浪，是阻礙學校持續改善的規範，它會妨礙學校的變革和增加輟學率(Fine, 1991)。Howe (1987)將之定義為「潛在課程」，作為一個研究者，他發現學校結構的基礎以及強調整合。

Norms of continuous improvement.持續改善的規範

Similar to the introspective attitude associated with a norm of critical inquiry, a norm of continuous improvement suggests that when problems surface, the information, resources and training will be provided to address the problems. Use of the knowledge base supposes an expectation for staff development to occur as a cultural norm that facilitates change. Cardelle-Elawar (1990) studied mathematics teachers who had shown deficiency in mathematical skills and pedagogy. Her study points out that a school can make significant gains, in spite of faculty weaknesses, through sound staff development. Schools, however, commonly fail to have a norm regarding the need for in-service work during implementation (Fullan, 1991).

類似於自省的態度有助於批判探究的規範，一個持續改善的規範認為，當問題浮現，訊息、資源和培訓的提供，可以用來解決問題。運用知識基礎來假定，預期工作人員會發展出一種有利於變革作為的文化規範。Cardelle - Elawar（1990）研究缺乏數學技能和教學法的數學教師。她的研究指出，儘管教師有弱點，但透過健全的工作人員發展，學校可以取得重大的進步。然而，學校在工作進行中有關工作需求的規範，通常是沒有的(Fullan, 1991)。

Patterson, Purkey and Parker (1986) note that "numerous research studies (e.g. Berman & McLaughlin, 1978 and Fullan & Pomfret, 1977) converge on the theme that access to information, resources, and support by those ultimately responsible for using a specific innovation is critical to successful implementation" (p. 30). Information must be clear regarding the school improvement effort. "Unclear and unspecified changes can cause great anxiety and frustration to those sincerely trying to implement them" (Fullan, 1991, p. 70). A limited knowledge base and lack of technical support from specialists are cited by Wiggins (1991) as two factors that contribute to teachers' reluctance to adopt new programs. This is significant, since Rosenholtz and Simpson (1990) found in their study of teacher commitment that learning opportunities for teachers was one predictor of teacher commitment, an important element of sustained change efforts.

Patterson, Purkey and Parker (1986)指出，許多的研究（如Berman & McLaughlin, 1978 and Fullan & Pomfret, 1977），主題聚焦於獲得訊息、資源和支持，使用特定的創新對成功的實施是重大的最終原因(p.30)。有關於學校改善成果的訊息必須非常明確。「對那些真誠地試圖實現的理想，不清楚和不明確的變革會造成巨大的焦慮和沮喪」(Fullan, 1991, p. 70)。Wiggins (1991) 列舉兩個教師不願意採用新方案的因素：有限的知識基礎和缺乏專家們的技術支持。這一點很重要，因為 Rosenholtz and Simpson(1990)在他們教師承諾的研究中發現，為教師提供學習機會，是預測教師承諾的重要變項，也是一個持續努力變革的重要因素。

Change requires a real understanding on the part of teachers and other people in schools about how to implement the change (Clune, 1991). Pink (1990) found that an inadequate theory about school change, a lack of awareness of the limitations of teachers and administrators, and a lack of technical assistance for program conceptualization, implementation and evaluation were barriers to effective implementation of programs.

改變需要一個真正對教師和其他人在學校如何實施變革的理解(Clune, 1991)，Pink (1990)發現一個有關於不利於學校變革的理論，教師和行政人員的限制，就是缺乏認知，以及對於方案概念化、實施和評鑑缺乏技術的援助，這是有效執行方案的阻礙。

A widely shared vision.廣泛的共享願景

A norm of protecting what is important evolves from a shared vision of what things are important. Numerous researchers have found that sharing a common vision increases the likelihood that school improvement efforts will succeed (Beer, Eisenstat, & Spector, 1990; Deal, 1985; Carlson, 1987; Miles & Louis, 1990; Norris & Reigeluth, 1991; Schlechty & Cole, 1991). A shared vision among students, faculty, parents, and the external community is a feature of schools in which all students are most likely to succeed academically. If this shared sense of purpose exists, members of the school community are able to spell out what constitutes good performance in a relatively precise and consistent way. Without a shared vision, students, teachers, administrators, and parents do not know what is expected of them (Smey-Richman, 1991). A shared vision helps point out what is important to develop and protect in the school.

從保護什麼是重要的進化到什麼事情是重要的共享願景是一個重要的規範，許多研究人員發現，有共同的願景增加了改善學校一定會成功的可能性(Beer, Eisenstat, & Spector, 1990; Deal, 1985; Carlson, 1987; Miles & Louis, 1990; Norris & Reigeluth, 1991; Schlechty & Cole, 1991)，在學生、教職員、家長以及社區有共享的願景，是大多數學生學術成就較高的學校所呈現的一項特徵。如果學校社區成員有共享的目標，那麼他們就能用較為適切和一致的方式，詳細說明良好的表現是如何構成的。沒有共享的願景，學生、教師、行政人員和家長就不知道他們的期望是什麼(Smey-Richman, 1991)。共享的願景可以指出，學校要發展和保護的重點。

A shared vision is one to which many people are truly committed, because it reflects their own personal vision. A vision that is not consistent with values by which people live continuously will fail to inspire and often will foster cynicism (Senge, 1990). Miles (1987, cited in Fullan, 1991) stresses that vision involves two dimensions: "The first is what the school could look like; [this vision] provides the direction and driving power for change, and the criteria for steering and choosing�The second [dimension] is a vision of the change process: What will be the general game plan or strategy for getting there?" (p. 82). Both dimensions of the vision are both sharable and shared.

共享的願景是許多人真實的承諾，因為它反映出他們個人的願景。願景與人們生活延續的價值觀不符合時，就無法激勵人心而且反而使人玩世不恭(Senge, 1990)。Miles (1987, cited in Fullan, 1991)強調，願景涉及兩個面向：首先是學校看起來像什麼，它會提供方向和變革的驅動力，以及轉向和選擇的規準；其次是變革過程的願景，為了達成目標需要採取什麼策略和計畫？願景的這兩個面向，都是成員共享的。

In addition, Berman and McLaughlin (1975) found, in their often cited study of school change efforts, that when the goals of a change project are close to district priorities, the likelihood that change will result is higher. The closer the change objectives are to a district's vision, the better the chance that changes will be continued. When change objectives fall below a district's top three or four priorities, problems arise, according to Corbett, Dawson, and Firestone's (1984) study of school context and change.

此外，Berman and McLaughlin (1975)發現，在他們經常引用的學校變革成果的研究中，當變革專案的目標是接近學區的重點時，變革獲得較好結果的可能性較高。變革的目標愈接近學區的願景，變革得以持續獲得較佳結果的機會就會增加。根據Corbett, Dawson, and Firestone's (1984)對學校脈絡和變革的研究，當變革的目標與學區優先推動重點中，落差了三或四項時，學校的問題就會增加了。

A norm of involvement in making decisions.參與決定的規範

Many researchers have found that participation in decision making by those affected directly or indirectly by the school improvement effort is essential to successful implementation and institutionalization (Everson, Scollay, Fabert, & Garcia, 1986; Pollack, Chrispeels, & Watson, 1987; Raelin, 1989; Sarason, 1982; Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989). A cultural norm supporting the involvement of teachers in decisions or plans that will affect them heightens the possibility that changes will be appropriate in a particular setting. Involvement makes it more likely that responsibility will be assumed and not be attributed to others (Sarason, 1982).

許多研究人員發現，為了將變革成功的實施和制度化，參與決策是不可或缺的，因為它直接或間接地影響了學校改善的成果(Everson, Scollay, Fabert, & Garcia, 1986; Pollack, Chrispeels, & Watson, 1987; Raelin, 1989; Sarason, 1982; Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989)。文化規範支持教師參與決策或計畫，這將強化他們認為變革在特定環境中是適當的。參與使得教師更可能承擔責任而不是歸咎於他人(Sarason, 1982)。

By providing the opportunity for participants to discuss and plan changes, leaders help to assure a higher quality innovation along with greater commitment to and ownership of the innovation. Teachers want their students to be successful, in part, because they want their own ideas and efforts to be successful (Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989). Participation in decision making helps people acquire the knowledge and skills needed to change their behavior and contribute to successful implementation (Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone, 1984).

透過讓參與者討論和規劃變革的機會，領導者協助確保創新的品質可以提高，同時使教師對創新有更大的承諾和歸屬感。教師希望自己的學生取得成功，在某種程度上是因為他們希望自己的想法和努力是成功的(Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989)。參與決策幫助人們獲得改變自己的行為所需的知識和技能，並有助於成功的執行變革(Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone, 1984)。

On the other hand, educators who are denied serious involvement in policy settings and decision making cannot be fully effective with students (Giroux, 1988 cited in Fine, 1991). Giroux's data suggests that educators who feel that they can influence institutional policy and practice also feel that "these adolescents" can be helped. Educators who feel that they can not influence either policy or practice consider their students to be "beyond help" (Fine, 1991).

另一方面，排除教育工作者參與政策制定和決策，並不能使學生展現效能(Giroux, 1988 cited in Fine, 1991)。Giroux的資料顯示，教育工作者覺得他們可以影響體制政策和實踐也覺得，他們能幫助青少年。如果教育工作者認為他們的學生是在「幫助範圍之外」，他就會覺得自己不能影響任何政策或做法(Fine, 1991)。