992.4.28 Shared Decision-Making 共享式決策

Shared Decision-Making. ERIC Digest, Number 87.

WHICH ISSUES SHOULD SDM GROUPS FOCUS ON?

SDM的工作團隊應該聚焦在哪些議題上？

One of the most difficult areas for many schools is not who should be involved in SDM and how, but what areas should be addressed. Allen and Glickman encourage schools to pick a single, uncomplicated issue, then slowly build on the number and complexity of issues. Many schools get bogged down in what Allen and Glickman term "zero-impact" issues, such as lunchroom supervision or bus duties topics that may affect teachers' lives but don't have significant educational impact.

對許多學校來說決定SDM的成員或者如何參與SDM並不是最困難的部分，而是要提出要討論的議題為何。Allen and Glickman鼓勵學校選擇單一且不複雜的議題，然後慢慢地建立議題的深度與廣度。很多學校因為Allen and Glickman這個團隊所提出的“零衝擊”的議題而陷入動彈不得的狀況中，像是午餐餐廳的管理或是公車責任議題，這些都是會影響老師的生活但是又沒有很重要的教育影響。

Peggy Kirby (1992) suggests that SDM teams will be more likely to focus on issues of greater significance when minor faculty concerns are resolved first. Knowledge plays a part, too, as Kirby found that groups who "risk resolving school-wide instructional concerns" are more successful when they thoroughly investigate alternatives, disseminate this information to others, and analyze consequences before making decisions.

Kirby建議，當少數員工關心的議題優先被解決時，SDM小組應該聚焦在更重要的議題。知識也是其中一部分，當他們全面地去研究另一種方案，宣傳這個資訊給其他人，還有在做決定之前先分析後果的時候，Kirby發現SDM中的成員願意去“冒險解決全校教育的重要課題”比較多會成功。

SDM is neither a panacea for all of America's educational problems nor a "quick fix." Lange emphasizes that this "valuable resource" must be viewed in the context of restructuring, as a piece of the larger puzzle that hopefully will produce change in our schools.

SDM對全美國的教育問題來說，既不是一個特效藥也不是一個“快速的治療方法”。Lange強調在重建的背景中SDM小組應該被視為“有價值的資源”，像是一個大拼圖中其中的一塊，將會在我們的學校中有希望的製造出改變。

#分享做決策小組如何在各個學校中發揮真正的效用，而且未來要去關心應該要更傾向有更強大重要性的議題應該先被解決當比較少員工去關心的議題，而不是去關心比較不重要的課題，…….

992.4.21 Critical Issue: Building a Committed Team 關鍵議題：建立一個有承諾的團隊

Critical Issue: Building a Committed Team 關鍵議題：建立一個有承諾的團隊

ACTION OPTIONS:

·     Obtain support, training, and information on shared decisionmaking, perhaps by contacting organizations that work with schools in developing teams.

·     Learn about the importance of teams in the success of organizations by reading about how teams are more effective than individuals.

·     Discuss how the team is functioning and learn about the functions of teams in schools by reading about programs that work (Maeroff, 1993).

·     Teams can become more efficient, with less conflict and more successful decisionmaking, by participating in training for effective team building.

·     To overcome individuals' resistance to working together, team members should learn from other successful teams, perhaps by viewing videotapes on effective teamwork or reading about another team's accomplishments.

·     Learn how collaboration and a shared culture can support teamwork.

·     Teams also can become more self-aware and successful by learning about the stages of team development, the positive and negative roles that can exist in teams, team problem finding and problem solving (Yukl, 1989), and methods for avoiding and resolving conflict.

行動的選擇有:

l   包含支持，訓練，還有分享做決定的資訊，也許藉由和組織的聯繫，可以和學校同工成為發展中的小組。

l   藉由閱讀有關小組如何比個人更有效率的狀況，來學習有關小組的重要性和如何在機構中的成功。

l   討論小組如何運作還有藉由閱讀運作中的方案來學習小組在學校中的功能。(Maeroff, 1993)

l   小組可以藉由參加有關「有效率的小組建立」的訓練中，變成更有效率，更少衝突，而且更成功下決策的小組。

l   為了克服個人和別人同工的反抗，小組的成員應該從成功的小組中來學習，也許可以藉由觀看有關有效率的小組同工的錄影帶，或是閱讀有關其他小組的成就來學習。

l   學習如何合作還有一種分享的文化是可以支持小組的共同工作。

l   小組也可以變成更有自我意識和成功的小組，小組可以藉由學習有關小組發展的階段，可以存在在同一個小組裡正面和反面的角色，尋找小組的問題和問題的解決(Yukl, 1989)，還有預防和解決衝突的方法。

# 這一段的重點主要是在說明成立小組的重要性和優點，小組的運作比個人更有效率，但是小組的運作也是需要一些方法的，例如藉由閱讀運作中的方案來學習小組在學校中的功能或是參加訓練等等….,

(其他的你再自己加上去，應該不難，因為這是是一點一點的條列式，有問題再跟我說)

992.4.14 School-Based Management. 學校本位管理

School-Based Management.    學校本位管理

HOW ARE BUDGET DECISIONS MADE?
預算決策是如何制定的呢？
In most SBM systems, each school is given a "lump sum" that the school can spend as it sees fit.
在大多數學校基礎管理系統中，每個學校都有一個“總包價法“，即學校能以其視為合理的費用做為花費。
In a budgeting process outlined by JoAnn Spear (1983), the district office determines the total funds needed by the whole district, determines the districtwide costs (such as the cost of central administration and transportation), and allocates the remaining funds to the individual schools.
在1983年 JoAnn Spear 提出，在預算編制過程中，民政事務處決定了全區所需的費用資金總額，也決定區域的邊際成本（如中央的行政和運輸成本），並將剩餘的資金分配到個別學校。
The allocation to each school is determined by a formula that takes into account the number and type of students at that school.
每所學校的分配取決於一個既定的公式，此公式以學校的學生數量和類型為考量。
Often the district is responsible for purchasing and warehousing supplies and equipment specified by the schools.
通常情況下，區要負責採購以及儲備學校特別需要的供給與設備。
Each school determines how to spend the lump sum allocated by the district. Funds can be spent on personnel, equipment, supplies, and maintenance.
每所學校在結構與行政上的優先順序可以從預算展現出來。資金可以用在人員，設備，用品和維護，某些資金可以被繼續被轉移到下年度需要更多錢的方案。
The school's instructional and administrative priorities are expressed through its budget priorities. Surplus funds can be carried over to the next year or be shifted to a program that needs more funds;
in this way, long-range planning and efficiency are encouraged.
這樣，對長期的規劃和效率有激勵效果。


HOW ARE DECISIONS MADE AT THE SCHOOL LEVEL?
如何以學校的層級作出決策？
Most districts create school-based management councils at the school sites.
多數地區在學校的網站創立以學校為基礎的管理委員會。
Each council includes the principal, representatives of parents and teachers, and, in some cases, other citizens, support staff, and students (at the secondary level).
每個理事會包括校長，家長代表和教師，以及在某些情況下，其他公民，輔助人員，學生（c第二級）。
The council conducts a needs assessment and then develops a plan of action that includes statements of goals and measurable objectives.
這個理事會會設定一項需求評估，然後制定一個行動計劃，計劃中包括：目標聲明和測量標的。
According to Carl Marburger (1985), the council is not a little school board but helps determine how the school implements school board policies.
在1985 年Carl Marburger提出 ，理事會並不是一個小型的學校董事會，而是幫助學校去決定如何推行學校董事會的政策。
In some districts, the school-based management council makes most school-level decisions.
在某些地區，以學校為基礎的管理委員會決定大多數學校層級的決策。
In other districts, the council advises the principal, who then makes the decisions.
在其他地區，該委員會的主要是向校長，就是主要作決定的人，提出建議。
In both cases, the principal has a large role in the decision-making process, either as part of a team or as the final decision-maker.
在這兩種情況下，無論是作為團隊的一部分，或是最終決策者，校長在決策過程
中皆扮演最重要的角色。

992.4.6 From the Principal Files: The Principal Shortage -- What Can Schools Do to Attract a New Generation of School Leaders?

From the Principal Files: The Principal Shortage -- What Can Schools Do to Attract a New Generation of School Leaders?
校長檔案：校長短缺--學校應該做什麼來吸引新一代的學校領導者？

More Ideas for Attracting Principals

用來吸引校長的更多想法

The Education World "Principal Files" principals have plenty of ideas for countering the principal shortage. Following are a handful of their unique suggestions:

Reconfigure the school day. 重新分配在學校的時間
校長應對學校行政人員負起責任，將他們視為利害關係人，持續讓他們了解並從事創造思考，並且他們有責任要修正願景。平常老師的時間用來教學，但是沒有時間來完成這些團體工作，重新修改在學校的工作時間，如果老師每天工作八小時就可以有時間來做這些事情。

Currently, principals are accountable for involving their staff as stakeholders, keeping them informed, engaging them in creative thinking, and holding them responsible for implementing the vision. Time is provided for teaching, but there is no time to accomplish those group tasks. Reworking the school day so teachers work an eight-hour day would create time to do that.
    -- Lyn McCarty, Grant Joint Union High School District, Sacramento, California

Educate lawmakers. 教育的立法者
必須有人去使立法者重視他們立法通過的關於員工和財政的法律，法律常常沒有經過思考這些結果對校長、老師和其他學校員工的衝擊就通過了。

Somebody needs "to enlighten lawmakers about the personnel and financial ramifications" of the laws they pass. So often laws are passed without any thought for those ramifications and how they impact principals, teachers, and other school personnel.
    -- Ernest Elliott, Hacker Middle School, Mountain Home, Idaho

Set staff-to-administrator ratios 設立員工和管理者對應的比率
我們常常聽到小班教學的好處，尤其是在低年級，那麼對於管理者和學校規模的標準呢?學生和管理者的比率，或是員工和管理者的比率，思考這方面的問題是有幫助的。

We often hear about the benefits of smaller class size, especially in the early grades. How about school-size standards for administrators? A pupil-to-administrator ratio, or a staff-to-administrator ratio, would be helpful.
    -- Jon Romeo, Bradford Elementary School, Westerly, Rhode Island

Set school-size standards. 設立學校規模大小的標準
治理最大的學校規模，不超過300個學生，使學校更具個人、私人化。

Mandate a maximum school size, not to exceed 300 or so students, to make schools more personal.
    -- Lucie Boyadjian, Glen Oaks School, Hickory Hills, Illinois

Allow more leverage in staffing decisions. (使校長)對員工選擇更具有影響力

公會很困難去終止不適任老師，如果校長要對老師的不好表現負責任，他們應該擁有對老師(的去留)的義務責任，學校董事必須支持校長除去不適任的老師

Unions make terminating teachers who perform poorly very difficult. If principals are accountable for poor performance, they need to be able to hold teachers accountable. School boards need to support principals in getting rid of marginal teachers.
    --Alan Seay, Iowa Park (Texas) High School

Add support staff. 增加可以提供幫助的員工
需要額外的員工成員，像是社工、學校諮商師來協助眾多、多樣化的學生族群。
Additional staff members -- such as social workers and school counselors -- are needed to assist with the diverse student population.
    -- Lucie Boyadjian, Glen Oaks School, Hickory Hills, Illinois

Organize better. 更好的組織
校長必須做更好的組織工作，他們需要一個響亮的集體聲音讓大家注意到，校長扮演了教育領導者的關鍵性角色。
Principals need to do a better job of organizing. They need a loud collective voice to draw attention to the critical role principals play as instructional leaders.
    -- Anonymous principal