Cultural Norms文化規範
Just as the attitudes and beliefs of persons both inside and outside the school building may facilitate or impede change, the norms, or informal rules that govern behavior exert influence on change efforts. These norms are developed over time and are influenced by the attitudes and beliefs of those inside and outside the school. In turn, the norms define expectations regarding how things are to be done. This exerts an influence on beliefs and attitudes and the relationships of persons.
正如人的態度和信念一樣，學校建築物內部與外部可能促進或阻礙變革，規範就是受到正式或非正式的規則所支配的行為，可以對變革的成果發生影響。這些規範隨著時間的推移而發展，並受到學校內部、外部的態度和信念所影響。反過來，規範定義了事情要如何完成的期望。這對人的信念和態度以及關係發揮了影響。
Internalization of the culture. 內化的文化
Because of the impact of cultural norms on school improvement, the extent to which individual staff members internalize that culture affects improvement efforts as well. Schein (1985) explains that "every organization is concerned about the degree to which people at all levels 'fit' into it" (p. 42). Those new to the organization must learn the culture or suffer consequences, such as the feeling of alienation. If, on the other hand, the employee is "oversocialized", "the result is total conformity, leading to the inability on the part of the organization to be innovative" (Schein, 1985, p. 42).
因為文化規範對學校改善的衝擊，文化影響了個別工作人員的內化以及改善成果的範圍。Schein (1985)解釋說：「每一個組織應該關心各層級人員適合的內化程度」(p.42)。組織的新成員必須學習組織文化或承擔其後果，例如疏離的感覺。另一方面，如果員工『過度社會化』，將導致部分的組織工作無法創新」(Schein, 1985, p. 42)。
Schein (1985) delineates the elements that affect the degree to which culture is internalized.
Schein (1985)描繪了影響文化內化程度的元素：
n Common language and conceptual categories.
If members cannot communicate with and understand each other, a group is impossible by definition.
n 共同的語言和概念的範疇
如果成員無法溝通與相互理解，團體就不可能被界定。
n Group boundaries and criteria for inclusion and exclusion.
One of the most important areas of culture is the shared consensus on who is in and who is out and by what criteria one determines membership.
n 團體的界限以及納入與排除的規準
文化中最重要的領域是決定成員進或出的規準，是一個共享的共識。
n Power and status.
Every organization must work out its pecking order, its criteria and rules for how one gets, maintains, and loses power; consensus in this area is crucial to help members manage feelings of aggression.
n 權力與地位
每個組織都必須制定出其權力階層，以及人們得到、維持和失去權力的規準和規則，在這方面達成共識是很重要的，這樣可以協助成員處理權力被侵犯的感覺。
n Intimacy, friendship, and love.
Every organization must work out its rules of the game for peer relationships, for relationships between the sexes, and for the manner in which openness and intimacy are to be handled in the context of managing the organization's tasks.
n 親密關係、友誼和愛情
每個組織都必須制定出同儕關係、兩性關係的遊戲規則，以及組織的任務範圍內，開放和親密的禮貌。
n Rewards and punishments.
Every group must know what its heroic and sinful behaviors are; what gets rewarded with property, status, and power; and what gets punished in the form of withdrawal of the rewards and, ultimately, excommunication.
n 獎勵與懲罰
每個團體必須知道，什麼是英勇的或是不道德的行為？什麼的情況會得到財物、地位和權力的獎勵？以及什麼情況會得到撤銷獎勵的懲罰，甚至最終被開除。
n Ideology and "religion."
Every organization [must reach consensus on how to manage the unmanageable and explain the unexplainable. Stories and myths about what was done in the past provide explanations and norms for managing situations that defy scientific decision making.] (p. 66)
n 意識形態與「宗教」
每個組織必須在如何管理失控和解釋無法解釋的事情上達成共識。過去做了什麼的故事和神話，在管理情境中所提供的解釋和規範，是無法與科學的決定做比較的(p.66)。
Pollack, Chrispeels, and Watson (1987), in their study of ten schools engaged in school improvement efforts, emphasize that internalization of change is important because it "leads to transformations and changes in users' practices and the consequent institutionalizing of change at a school site" (p. 15). Most teachers rely on the memories of their own teachers' actions, teacher-training programs, and the process of socialization to cope with problems (Davis, 1988). They become, according to Davis, reasonably comfortable with the standard operating procedures of the school's culture. When change occurs, such as the introduction of a new program, discomfort occurs. A "time honored practice in many schools" is to simply forget to implement new programs in order to insulate against the "anxiety-producing situation" that change presents and that those involved wish to avoid if at all possible (Davis, 1988, p. 6).
Pollack, Chrispeels, and Watson (1987)在他們從事十所學校的改善成果的研究中，強調變革的內化是很重要。因為它導致使用者實踐時的轉型和變革，以及由此在學校環境中所產生的制度化變革(p.15)。大部分教師依靠回憶自己的老師的行為、師資培育方案以及社會化的進程來應付問題(Davis, 1988)。根據Davis的觀點，他們將學校文化合理化成安逸的標準作業程序。當變革發生時，例如引進一個新的方案時，不適應就發生。許多學校長久以來的慣例，使得他們很輕易的就忘記，執行新方案就是希望隔絕和避免那些參與變革所可能產生的焦慮(Davis, 1988, p. 6)。
Student culture.學生的文化
Like other cultures, the school culture consists of a dominant culture and subcultures of various groups. The student culture is one of these subcultures.
如同其他文化一樣，學校文化是由一個主流文化和許多次文化組成。學生文化是其中一個次文化。
Attention must be paid to the peer culture of students, especially in secondary schools. The extent to which the student culture values academic success or willingly complies with school rules, will affect their achievement. Since student peer culture influences student performance, school staff members must [know] whether the dominant peer culture adds to or detracts from the school's mission (Patterson, Purkey, & Parker, 1986, p. 101).
學生的同儕文化必須加以注意，尤其是在中等學校。在學術上獲得成功或是自願遵守學校的規章，反應在學生文化的價值觀中，它將影響他們的學業成就。因為學生同儕文化會影響學生的表現。學校工作人員必須知道，其主流的學生同儕文化，會增加或降低學校的使命(Patterson, Purkey, & Parker, 1986, p. 101)。
Staff members need to examine the dominant student culture and look for ways to help students internalize elements of the school culture that will make students supportive of the school's mission (Patterson, Purkey, & Parker, 1986). Wehlage (1983), in his study of successful programs for at-risk students, notes the existence of a peer culture that supports the rules and goals of the program. The programs he studied were perceived by students as having a family atmosphere that provided acceptance and constructive criticism. Students believed that the rules and goals were in their interest.
學校工作人員需要檢視主流的學生文化，以及尋求方法幫助學生內化學校文化的要素，使學生支持學校的使命(Patterson, Purkey, & Parker, 1986)。在Wehlage (1983) 為高風險學生成功方案的研究中，注意到同儕文化的存在，支持著該方案的規則和目標。他研究的這個方案，因為提供認同和建設性的批評，被學生認為有家庭的氛圍。學生相信規則和目標符合他們的利益。
Turnover.成員流動率
One barrier to internalization of the school culture is turnover among staff. The instability of teachers in urban schools presents a problem for program continuity (Conklin & Olson, 1988; Pink, 1990). Similarly, the departure of a respected teacher who strongly advocates a project may dampen enthusiasm for it among the remaining teachers (Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone, 1984). Whether due to the loss of teachers who serve as leaders of the project, the loss of those who are trained in project implementation, or the loss of teachers who serve as a support mechanism, turnover gets in the way of lasting improvement.
一個學校文化內化的阻礙是學校成員的流動率，市區學校教師的流動率高，使得執行方案的持續性出現問題(Conklin & Olson, 1988; Pink, 1990)。同樣的，一個受人尊敬且強烈支持方案的教師離職，可能會減損其餘留任教師的熱忱(Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone, 1984)。不論是因為擔任方案領導人的教師離職，或者接受訓練以執行方案的損失，還是作為支持機制的教師離職，這些流動率造成的損失都應該想辦法持續改善。
Corbett, Dawson, and Firestone (1984), in their study of fourteen schools implementing change, note that "the consequences of turnover on change projects can be considerable, especially if a principal who supports a project leaves and is replaced by another whose priorities are different" (p. 7). This may be more true for "high-powered, charismatic principals who 'radically transform' the school in four or five years," according to Fullan (1992), because "so much depends on his or her personal strength and presence" (p. 19). Fullan admits that no follow-up studies have been done on schools with this type of principal, but suggests that most of these schools decline after the leader leaves. "Too much store is placed in the leader as solution compared to the leader as enabler of solutions" (p. 19).
Corbett, Dawson, and Firestone (1984)，在他們十四所學校實施變革的研究中，注意到「流動率影響變革的結果相當大，特別是支持變革的校長離職後，其後任校長施政的優先順序與前任不同時」(p.7)。可能更真實的是──「幹勁十足、有魅力的校長在四、五年間就可以從根本上將學校轉型」，依據Fullan (1992)的觀點，因為有很多地方要取決於校長（他或她）個人的實力和風采(p.19)。Fullan也承認，後續沒有對這類型校長的研究，但大多數這些學校的領導者離開後，學校的表現退步了。「太多的商店把領導者解決，而不是將領導者視為有能力解決問題的人」(p.19)。
Cultural Norms that Facilitate School Improvement 促進學校改善的文化規範
Researchers have found particular cultural norms that can facilitate school improvement. Norms such as introspection, collegiality, and a shared sense of purpose or vision combine to create a culture that supports innovation (Staessens, 1991). In her study of nine primary schools in Belgium, Staessens found that a school culture with these norms was instrumental in the school's ability to sustain school improvement. Saphier and King (1985) list from their experience twelve norms of school culture that support significant, continuous, and widespread improvements in instruction. These include norms that encourage: high expectations; experimentation; use of the knowledge bases; involvement in decision making; protection of what's important; collegiality; trust and confidence; tangible support; appreciation and recognition; caring, celebration, and humor; traditions; and honest, open communication. The degree to which these norms are strong makes a difference in the ability of school improvement activities to have a lasting, or even any, effect. Other writers confirm the need for cultural norms that support change efforts. 研究人員發現，特定的文化規範可以促進學校改善。例如反省、合議以及共同的目的或願景結合起來，創造一種支持創新的文化(Staessens,199)。Staessen研究九所比利時(Belgium)小學後發現，學校文化與這些規範，有助於學校持續改善的能力。Saphier and King (1985)從他們的經驗列出了十二項，支持教學上有意義的、持續的和普遍的，改善學校文化的規範。這些規範包含了：鼓勵、高度期望、實驗精神、使用知識為基礎、參與決策、對重要事物的保護、合議、信任與信心、實質的支持、讚賞與認同、關懷、慶典、幽默、傳統、誠實以及公開的溝通。在這些規範對學校改善活動的能力到何種程度上是有差別的，可以產生持久的，甚至是其他的任何影響。其他研究者也確認，文化規範對於支持變革成果的需求。
Norms of continuous critical inquiry.持續性批判探究的規範
Saphier and King (1985) note that good schools have a wide-spread belief that any school has areas of strength and weakness. This belief creates an openness to dealing with imperfections, suggesting that the school has high expectations for itself and its ability to improve. Barth (1991) believes, based on his experience, that the most important change to bring to schools is a cultural norm of continuous adaptability, experimentation, and invention. If everyone in the culture is reluctant to express ideas they perceive are counter to group norms, a barrier to change is created (Sarason, 1982).
Saphier and King (1985)指出，良好的學校都知道，任何學校都有其優點和弱點的領域，這樣的信念使學校有一個開放的心態處理學校的缺失，也就是學校對自己和改善的能力具有高度的期望。Barth (1991)認為，根據他的經驗，為學校帶來最重要的改變是持續適應性、實驗性和創造性的文化規範。學校文化如果是讓每個人不願去表達自己的意見，變革的阻礙就誕生了(Sarason, 1982)。
Druian and Butler (1987) reviewed the literature on effective schools and practices that work for at-risk students. They found that successful programs do not suppress criticism but instead provide a positive and constructive atmosphere in which criticism can occur. A barrier to a norm of continuous improvement is the silencing of criticism by schools, which contributes to resistance to change and the dropout problem, according to Fine (1991). A "hidden curriculum" identified by Howe (1987) in his experiences as a researcher was found to underlie the structure of the school and to emphasize conformity. Druian and Butler (1987)探討有效能的學校對高風險學生的作為的文獻，他們發現，成功的方案不會壓抑批評的聲音，而是提供一個積極的和建設性的氣氛，讓批評可以發聲。沉默的批評聲浪，是阻礙學校持續改善的規範，它會妨礙學校的變革和增加輟學率(Fine, 1991)。Howe (1987)將之定義為「潛在課程」，作為一個研究者，他發現學校結構的基礎以及強調整合。
Norms of continuous improvement.持續改善的規範
Similar to the introspective attitude associated with a norm of critical inquiry, a norm of continuous improvement suggests that when problems surface, the information, resources and training will be provided to address the problems. Use of the knowledge base supposes an expectation for staff development to occur as a cultural norm that facilitates change. Cardelle-Elawar (1990) studied mathematics teachers who had shown deficiency in mathematical skills and pedagogy. Her study points out that a school can make significant gains, in spite of faculty weaknesses, through sound staff development. Schools, however, commonly fail to have a norm regarding the need for in-service work during implementation (Fullan, 1991).
類似於自省的態度有助於批判探究的規範，一個持續改善的規範認為，當問題浮現，訊息、資源和培訓的提供，可以用來解決問題。運用知識基礎來假定，預期工作人員會發展出一種有利於變革作為的文化規範。Cardelle - Elawar（1990）研究缺乏數學技能和教學法的數學教師。她的研究指出，儘管教師有弱點，但透過健全的工作人員發展，學校可以取得重大的進步。然而，學校在工作進行中有關工作需求的規範，通常是沒有的(Fullan, 1991)。
Patterson, Purkey and Parker (1986) note that "numerous research studies (e.g. Berman & McLaughlin, 1978 and Fullan & Pomfret, 1977) converge on the theme that access to information, resources, and support by those ultimately responsible for using a specific innovation is critical to successful implementation" (p. 30). Information must be clear regarding the school improvement effort. "Unclear and unspecified changes can cause great anxiety and frustration to those sincerely trying to implement them" (Fullan, 1991, p. 70). A limited knowledge base and lack of technical support from specialists are cited by Wiggins (1991) as two factors that contribute to teachers' reluctance to adopt new programs. This is significant, since Rosenholtz and Simpson (1990) found in their study of teacher commitment that learning opportunities for teachers was one predictor of teacher commitment, an important element of sustained change efforts.
Patterson, Purkey and Parker (1986)指出，許多的研究（如Berman & McLaughlin, 1978 and Fullan & Pomfret, 1977），主題聚焦於獲得訊息、資源和支持，使用特定的創新對成功的實施是重大的最終原因(p.30)。有關於學校改善成果的訊息必須非常明確。「對那些真誠地試圖實現的理想，不清楚和不明確的變革會造成巨大的焦慮和沮喪」(Fullan, 1991, p. 70)。Wiggins (1991) 列舉兩個教師不願意採用新方案的因素：有限的知識基礎和缺乏專家們的技術支持。這一點很重要，因為 Rosenholtz and Simpson(1990)在他們教師承諾的研究中發現，為教師提供學習機會，是預測教師承諾的重要變項，也是一個持續努力變革的重要因素。
Change requires a real understanding on the part of teachers and other people in schools about how to implement the change (Clune, 1991). Pink (1990) found that an inadequate theory about school change, a lack of awareness of the limitations of teachers and administrators, and a lack of technical assistance for program conceptualization, implementation and evaluation were barriers to effective implementation of programs.
改變需要一個真正對教師和其他人在學校如何實施變革的理解(Clune, 1991)，Pink (1990)發現一個有關於不利於學校變革的理論，教師和行政人員的限制，就是缺乏認知，以及對於方案概念化、實施和評鑑缺乏技術的援助，這是有效執行方案的阻礙。
A widely shared vision.廣泛的共享願景
A norm of protecting what is important evolves from a shared vision of what things are important. Numerous researchers have found that sharing a common vision increases the likelihood that school improvement efforts will succeed (Beer, Eisenstat, & Spector, 1990; Deal, 1985; Carlson, 1987; Miles & Louis, 1990; Norris & Reigeluth, 1991; Schlechty & Cole, 1991). A shared vision among students, faculty, parents, and the external community is a feature of schools in which all students are most likely to succeed academically. If this shared sense of purpose exists, members of the school community are able to spell out what constitutes good performance in a relatively precise and consistent way. Without a shared vision, students, teachers, administrators, and parents do not know what is expected of them (Smey-Richman, 1991). A shared vision helps point out what is important to develop and protect in the school.
從保護什麼是重要的進化到什麼事情是重要的共享願景是一個重要的規範，許多研究人員發現，有共同的願景增加了改善學校一定會成功的可能性(Beer, Eisenstat, & Spector, 1990; Deal, 1985; Carlson, 1987; Miles & Louis, 1990; Norris & Reigeluth, 1991; Schlechty & Cole, 1991)，在學生、教職員、家長以及社區有共享的願景，是大多數學生學術成就較高的學校所呈現的一項特徵。如果學校社區成員有共享的目標，那麼他們就能用較為適切和一致的方式，詳細說明良好的表現是如何構成的。沒有共享的願景，學生、教師、行政人員和家長就不知道他們的期望是什麼(Smey-Richman, 1991)。共享的願景可以指出，學校要發展和保護的重點。
A shared vision is one to which many people are truly committed, because it reflects their own personal vision. A vision that is not consistent with values by which people live continuously will fail to inspire and often will foster cynicism (Senge, 1990). Miles (1987, cited in Fullan, 1991) stresses that vision involves two dimensions: "The first is what the school could look like; [this vision] provides the direction and driving power for change, and the criteria for steering and choosing�The second [dimension] is a vision of the change process: What will be the general game plan or strategy for getting there?" (p. 82). Both dimensions of the vision are both sharable and shared.
共享的願景是許多人真實的承諾，因為它反映出他們個人的願景。願景與人們生活延續的價值觀不符合時，就無法激勵人心而且反而使人玩世不恭(Senge, 1990)。Miles (1987, cited in Fullan, 1991)強調，願景涉及兩個面向：首先是學校看起來像什麼，它會提供方向和變革的驅動力，以及轉向和選擇的規準；其次是變革過程的願景，為了達成目標需要採取什麼策略和計畫？願景的這兩個面向，都是成員共享的。
In addition, Berman and McLaughlin (1975) found, in their often cited study of school change efforts, that when the goals of a change project are close to district priorities, the likelihood that change will result is higher. The closer the change objectives are to a district's vision, the better the chance that changes will be continued. When change objectives fall below a district's top three or four priorities, problems arise, according to Corbett, Dawson, and Firestone's (1984) study of school context and change. 此外，Berman and McLaughlin (1975)發現，在他們經常引用的學校變革成果的研究中，當變革專案的目標是接近學區的重點時，變革獲得較好結果的可能性較高。變革的目標愈接近學區的願景，變革得以持續獲得較佳結果的機會就會增加。根據Corbett, Dawson, and Firestone's (1984)對學校脈絡和變革的研究，當變革的目標與學區優先推動重點中，落差了三或四項時，學校的問題就會增加了。
A norm of involvement in making decisions.參與決定的規範
Many researchers have found that participation in decision making by those affected directly or indirectly by the school improvement effort is essential to successful implementation and institutionalization (Everson, Scollay, Fabert, & Garcia, 1986; Pollack, Chrispeels, & Watson, 1987; Raelin, 1989; Sarason, 1982; Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989). A cultural norm supporting the involvement of teachers in decisions or plans that will affect them heightens the possibility that changes will be appropriate in a particular setting. Involvement makes it more likely that responsibility will be assumed and not be attributed to others (Sarason, 1982).
許多研究人員發現，為了將變革成功的實施和制度化，參與決策是不可或缺的，因為它直接或間接地影響了學校改善的成果(Everson, Scollay, Fabert, & Garcia, 1986; Pollack, Chrispeels, & Watson, 1987; Raelin, 1989; Sarason, 1982; Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989)。文化規範支持教師參與決策或計畫，這將強化他們認為變革在特定環境中是適當的。參與使得教師更可能承擔責任而不是歸咎於他人(Sarason, 1982)。
By providing the opportunity for participants to discuss and plan changes, leaders help to assure a higher quality innovation along with greater commitment to and ownership of the innovation. Teachers want their students to be successful, in part, because they want their own ideas and efforts to be successful (Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989). Participation in decision making helps people acquire the knowledge and skills needed to change their behavior and contribute to successful implementation (Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone, 1984).
透過讓參與者討論和規劃變革的機會，領導者協助確保創新的品質可以提高，同時使教師對創新有更大的承諾和歸屬感。教師希望自己的學生取得成功，在某種程度上是因為他們希望自己的想法和努力是成功的(Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989)。參與決策幫助人們獲得改變自己的行為所需的知識和技能，並有助於成功的執行變革(Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone, 1984)。
On the other hand, educators who are denied serious involvement in policy settings and decision making cannot be fully effective with students (Giroux, 1988 cited in Fine, 1991). Giroux's data suggests that educators who feel that they can influence institutional policy and practice also feel that "these adolescents" can be helped. Educators who feel that they can not influence either policy or practice consider their students to be "beyond help" (Fine, 1991).
另一方面，排除教育工作者參與政策制定和決策，並不能使學生展現效能(Giroux, 1988 cited in Fine, 1991)。Giroux的資料顯示，教育工作者覺得他們可以影響體制政策和實踐也覺得，他們能幫助青少年。如果教育工作者認為他們的學生是在「幫助範圍之外」，他就會覺得自己不能影響任何政策或做法(Fine, 1991)。
